Introduction: What is Code-Switching?
Many definitions can be found to describe code-switching (also referred to as code mixing) as it has a variety of uses and social implications. When examining code-switching in the context of sociolinguistics and cultural backgrounds, Rampton defined code-switching as, “... a linguistic phenomenon in which speakers switch back and forth between two or more languages or language varieties in the context of a single conversation or utterance” (Rampton, 1995). This is the act of using multiple languages or changing linguistic style in a single situation, commonly based on social context. “Code-switching can happen in a range of contexts for a host of reasons. People may code-switch in multiple ways across different settings and groups, too” (Cleveland Clinic, 2025). One reason children code mix is that it happens frequently in their language communities—children are just doing what they hear adults around them do (Comeau, Genesee, & Lapaquette, 2003).
Code-switching is commonly used among minoritized groups when alternating between social interactions within their culture and that of the dominant culture, with several factors contributing to its use socially (e.g., race, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic class, level of education, sexual orientation, ability status, etc.). Current research stressed how code-switching is a normal part of bilingual development (Byers-Heinlein & Lew-Williams, 2013).
Clearing Up Misconceptions: The Positive Impact Code-Switching has on Literacy Development
Many misconceptions around code-switching in literacy development have been proposed. A study from Cambridge University states “the complexity of bilingual adults’ code switching generally reveals a sophisticated knowledge of the grammar of both languages and reflects the adults’ competency in using them appropriately. However, there has been much debate with respect to what children’s code-switching behavior suggests about their linguistic competency” (Yow et al., 2018). This contrast illustrates the linguistic bias against children who code-switch, while adults are seen as "smart" for doing the same.
Early studies proposed that children code switch out of confusion and/or linguistic incompetence. However, it is now widely accepted that code-switching can be used as a tool for literacy development, as it is attributed to cognitive flexibility (the mental ability to switch between thinking about two different concepts, or to think about multiple concepts simultaneously). Young bilinguals can be limited in terms of linguistic resources like their monolingual peers, which leads them to be resourceful and adaptive in their linguistic abilities. If a bilingual child does not know or cannot retrieve the appropriate word in one language, they might borrow the word from the other language (Lanza, 2004). Rather than being indicative of confusion, code-switching should be viewed in terms of the bilingual child's ingenuity. This resourcefulness and innovation can be positively transferred to literacy development, particularly with decoding skills by increasing working memory and attentional abilities.
Bilingualism is widespread across different areas of the world including Europe, Africa, and Asia. Despite the overwhelming presence of bilingualism, many of the aforementioned misconceptions regarding bilingual language development persist. A common concern regarding bilingual language development pertains to literacy skills. It is presumed that the effects of code switching on literacy skills and development in adolescents are negative, impacting their ability to read and write.
A research study involving 19 preschoolers belonging to Spanish-speaking families evaluated the impact, if any, on the children’s literacy development after teacher initiation of code-switching between Spanish and English. The study revealed an increase in morphosyntactic skills necessary for grammar, and expressive language post-intervention. These findings refute the misconceptions regarding code-switching and suggest that it can even enhance language acquisition in young learners (Anselmo, G., & Williams, M., 2012).
Malik Goes to School: Examining the Language Skills of African American Students is a research study and narrative by Holly K. Craig that explores the literacy development of African American students placed in primarily Mainstream American English (MAE) educational settings. Through the lens of a student named Malik, the author illustrates the importance of culturally responsive teaching for literacy development in African American English (AAE) speaking students and how bias plays a role in academic success in dialectal speakers. The study not only confirmed that AAE is a structured and systematic linguistic system rather than a deficit or improper form of English, but also that implicit bias affected student-teacher relationships, grading, and educational expectations, suggesting that bias may be impact literacy outcomes more than actual proficiency in students who code-switch. Moreover, findings suggest that children who speak AAE exhibit strong narrative and verbal skills, particularly in conversational contexts, and students who frequently code-switched tended to perform better on literacy-related tasks. When code-switching is embraced in literacy development, educational outcomes improve, as poor academic performance is more frequently a consequence of bias against code-switching speakers than an accurate reflection of their true academic abilities.
Another recent study also investigated the impact that code-switching potentially has on children’s literacy development, particularly in multilingual classrooms. It was found that students navigating these linguistic systems and structures benefited from code-switching. (Olabiyi, Winner & Oj, Taiwo & Esther, Adyemi., 2025), discussing additional recommendations regarding education policies and practices. Code-switching enhanced literacy skills by serving as a scaffolding tool for vocabulary development, reading comprehension, and writing proficiency. It has additional cognitive benefits including increased metalinguistic awareness and flexibility in language processing. Socially, identity-related aspects of code-switching contribute to linguistic confidence and classroom engagement. Intentional efforts must be made by educators to ensure that code-switching is used to facilitate and support rather than hinder literacy growth. They should be trained in effective code-switching strategies that promote reading and writing growth in both or all languages. The article finally discusses how schools and academic curricula should integrate code-switching approaches to facilitate this support. Doing so acknowledges the role of the student’s home languages and other cultural identities.
It is important to note that the misconception of bilingualism hindering language growth is being refuted. Integrating content from the discussed research, there can be heavy positive implications for utilizing code-switching to scaffold bilingual language and literacy development. This cognitive and linguistic flexibility demonstrates a strength in bilingual language development and use. Additionally, code-switching should be encouraged among AAE speakers in education as it can inform educators on their true academic abilities, rather than forcing students to conform to dialectal and sociolinguistic standards that conflict with their culture.
Helping Your Child Code-Switch: Practical Reading Strategies for Parents and Educators
HeadStart is an early intervention program supplied to the public through the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, with a goal of supporting families and children requiring developmental services in early childhood (about 3-4 years of age). Code-switching: Why it Matters & How to Respond provides caregivers with information about code-switching, different ways people code switch, potential ways to respond, myths, and benefits. It supports families in their efforts to facilitate intentional multilingual language development.
There are a lot of ways that families can implement code-switching at home. HeadStart recommends that caregivers expect multilingual children to code switch, observe their language abilities, and be strong language models. Additionally, they suggest avoiding the desire to “correct” the child, as this disregards the message the child is trying to communicate and implies the child should limit their speech in social contexts. Instead, it is recommended that caregivers build on and expand on the child’s original questions and comments and initiate conversations that the child is interested in to encourage language use. It was noted that, as a general rule, adults should initiate these conversations using one language at a time, with readiness to respond to code-switching from the child.
An example of this in Spanish might look like a two-year old commenting, “more leche” and the caregiver recasting and building on the comment in either language, “Here is some more milk, do you like to drink milk?”. This can be translated into reading at home when children are making comments about characters in the story, or to facilitate vocabulary growth when learning and explaining new words. Making the story and connections meaningful by encouraging code-switching further increases engagement and interest in literacy among children.
The HeadStart program also discusses what teachers should keep in mind when implementing code-switching into their classrooms, with considerations regarding; “how and when language(s) will be used in each classroom based on the languages of the children and the languages of the teaching staff, how home language will be supported in classrooms, how families will be engaged in supporting the home language of Dual Language Learners, expectations for teachers regarding code-switching, expectations for the level of language ability of bilingual staff, the language and cultural supports that will be provided for each child, and the resources needed to support children, families, and teachers to fulfill the plan” (Code-switching: Why it matters and how to respond, 2025).
The program states that adults working with children who code-switch should expect code-switching, observe language skills and general knowledge, and provide strong language models while balancing the “right amount” of implemented code switching from the educator to ensure maintained attention.
Conclusion
In summation, code-switching is a widely recognized and evidence-based tool used to enhance literacy development. There are many misconceptions regarding multilingualism and code-switching that are being refuted by research. Current findings suggest that code-switching benefits literacy by enhancing children's cognitive flexibility, improving the ability to navigate different language structures, and strengthening reading comprehension and writing skills by bridging home and academic languages. Therefore, code-switching should be embraced by its speakers, parents, and educators to elevate and refine overall literacy development.
About the authors: Dannielle and Abigail are master’s students in Speech-Language Pathology at Northern Illinois University.
References
Anselmo, G., & Williams, M. (2012). Does code-switching work for young children? A case study of English language learners. Early Childhood, Elementary and Middle Level Education, Eastern Illinois University
Byers-Heinlein, K., & Lew-Williams, C. (2013). Bilingualism in the Early Years: What the Science Says. LEARNing landscapes, DOI: 10.36510/learnland.v7i1.632
Cleveland Clinic. (2025, Feb. 21). Code-switching: What it is and why it happens. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/code-switching
Code-switching: Why it matters and how to respond. HeadStart.gov. (2025, February 21). https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/culture-language/article/code-switching-why-it-matters-how-respond
Craig, Holly K., and Julie A. Washington. Malik Goes to School : Examining the Language Skills of African American Students from Preschool-5th Grade, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/niu/detail.action?docID=261408.
Olabiyi, Winner & Oj, Taiwo & Esther, Adyemi. (2025). The Effects of Code-Switching on Literacy Development in Multilingual Classrooms.
Rampton, Ben. (1995). Language Crossing and the Problematisation of Ethnicity and Socialisation. Pragmatics; Vol 5, No 4 (1995). DOI: 10.1075/prag.5.4.04ram
YOW WQ, TAN JSH, FLYNN S. Code-switching as a marker of linguistic competence in bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2018;21(5):1075-1090. doi:10.1017/S1366728917000335
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