Does Your Gender Determine Your Cognitive Abilities? - Donielle A. Escalante, M.A., M.Ed.

Cisgender male and cisgender female bodies are biologically different from one another, so it stands to reason that male and female brains may be wired differently–at least in some regards–as well. That said, gender is only one factor when it comes to determining cognitive abilities and talents. Cultural practices and socialization are two other very important factors when it comes to determining what someone is going to be “good at.” We have all heard the stereotypes: women are better with language and communication, while men have the advantage in spatial reasoning. Women have better fine motor skills; males are generally better at math. But why do these stereotypes exist? And, if they are indeed accurate in some cases, why is that?   

In 1988, Alan Feingold, then of Yale University, argued that differences between genders in cognition were disappearing (Feingold, 1988). He asserted that differences in certain types of intelligence are not related to biology, but to social and cultural expectations, experiences, and circumstances. As our educational system and opportunities for women and girls had improved, and as gender roles had evolved, the performance gap between men and women had narrowed. This meant that male and female cognitive abilities were more similar than what many people previously believed, and at least some if not many of the different levels of performance on standardized assessments could be attributed to the two genders’ being taught to prepare for and value very different things. Mainstream ideas about what boys and men should aspire to vs. what girls and women should aspire to are constantly evolving, and they impact what students want to learn, what they study, and what they have access to.    

David Reilly’s 2012 study took things international and analyzed gender differences in the areas of reading, math, and science literacy in 65 countries; he used data from the 2009 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA; Reilly, 2012). This study came out nearly a quarter-century after Feingold’s, yet the results point to some lingering differences according to gender. In all nations, girls consistently outperformed boys in reading, while boys often outperformed girls in math. Science literacy was fairly inconclusive, as the gender differences in that subject were not significant. Reilly found that gender disparities were more evident when looking at both ends of the spectrum: there were larger differences between genders among lower-achieving students and among higher-achieving ones. Like Feingold, Reilly emphasized the significant influence of external factors such as the countries’ different economic situations, gender equity, and power distance (the extent to which people accept the fact that power is distributed unevenly). Reilly affirms that we cannot draw any conclusions about innate cognitive differences between males and females because different societies and cultures afford women very different opportunities:  

When we see consistent gender differences across many or all nations, and when they are large enough in magnitude to have a practical impact on the educational and occupational aspirations of boys and girls, then we might reasonably conclude some systemic process is responsible–be this biological or institutional. (p. 3) 

This brings us to the present day, or at least pretty close to it. In 2023, Kristin Bartlett and Jorge Camba published an article titled, “Gender differences in spatial ability: A critical review” (Bartlett & Camba, 2023). They found that mental rotation, a skill that falls under the larger umbrella of spatial ability, “is widely accepted as the cognitive ability with the largest gender difference in favor of men” (p. 7). So does this mean that men are inherently superior to women when it comes to mental rotation and spatial ability? It does not. The authors argue that the MRT, or Mental Rotation Test, the instrument used to measure mental rotation skills, is not a valid assessment. They go on to insist that the construct of spatial ability has been created together with the construct of gender. For example, plenty of “feminized” pursuits such as sewing, interior design, fashion, and cosmetology, just to name a few, require substantial spatial skills; they just are not recognized as such. We can see here that if a spatial skills assessment does not include a diverse variety of types of these skills, it is biased and therefore not valid. 

So, what’s the verdict? It’s that even with the assumption that a gender binary exists, we will never truly know the extent to which biological gender impacts cognitive ability, because we cannot control for it. There is–and rightfully so!—no way to take a large sample of infants from their families, raise them in complete isolation from societal and cultural gender norms, and then test their intelligence by looking at their performance on unbiased measures. What this boils down to, in my view, is the need for access and opportunities for all people along the gender spectrum. We should not simply accept that boys and men are going to struggle with reading and communication, just as we should not assume that women cannot be architects and engineers. 

I was once at a professional development session in which the speaker said that teachers sometimes make predictions about students that become self-fulfilling prophecies. For example, a teacher might say, “He’s a poor, rambunctious boy from a bad neighborhood. He’ll always struggle with reading.” The speaker then asked us what would happen if our physicians did the same thing. I would definitely not want my doctor to say something like, “She is totally going to fail when she tries to implement some lifestyle changes,” and then write me off as a lost cause! Those of us in education, whether we are teaching, training, hiring, or researching, need to be as unbiased as possible so that everyone gets a fair shot. Gender and gender expression are characteristics that should never be tied to assumptions. The research and data do not support that approach, and it is simply not fair to limit a human being’s possibilities for a full and rewarding life based on their biological makeup.      

About the author: Donielle Escalante is a doctoral student in Curriculum and Instruction and a high school assistant principal.  

References 

Bartlett, K. A., & Camba, J. D. (2023). Gender differences in spatial ability: A critical review.  Educational Psychology Review, 35(1), Article 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09728-2 

Feingold, A. (1988). Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist, 43(2),  95–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.43.2.95 

Reilly, D. (2012). Gender, culture, and sex-typed cognitive abilities. PLOS ONE, 7(7), e39904.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039904​ProQuest+2PLOS+2PMC+2  

Throwback Thursday: The Language Basis of Reading Comprehension Difficulties

For this month’s Throwback Thursday, we’re revisiting a CISLL video featuring Dr. Hugh Catts discussing the language basis of reading comprehension difficulties.

Reading comprehension is often thought of primarily as a reading skill, but successful reading involves much more than decoding words on a page. Language plays an essential role in how readers understand, interpret, and connect information within a text. Difficulties with oral language can therefore have important implications for reading comprehension and literacy development.

In this video, Dr. Catts explores the relationship between language and reading comprehension difficulties, highlighting the importance of considering students’ underlying language skills when understanding literacy challenges. This perspective remains particularly relevant for educators, speech-language pathologists, researchers, and other professionals working to support children’s literacy development.

As we look back at this CISLL video, it is a great reminder of the interdisciplinary connections between language, literacy, and learning—and why understanding those connections continues to be an important area of research and practice.

Watch the video: Language Basis of Reading Comprehension Difficulties ft. Dr. Hugh Catts

Whether you are familiar with Dr. Catts’ work or are exploring the connection between language and literacy for the first time, this Throwback Thursday is a great opportunity to revisit an important conversation and reflect on how language contributes to reading comprehension.

Role of Visuals and Multimodal Learning in Multilingual Literacy - Minju Kim

Literacy is more than just the ability to read and write; it is a fundamental skill for navigating modern life. As children enter school, literacy becomes essential for learning and effective communication. Therefore, building strong emergent literacy skills from an early stage is crucial. For multilingual children, literacy instruction should extend beyond traditional reading and writing. Incorporating visuals and multimodal strategies enhances comprehension and communication, fostering an inclusive and engaging learning environment.  

What is Multimodal? 

“Multimodal literacy” means that two or more means or types of communication are being used and aims to utilize multiple senses or modalities (e.g., speech, music, images and gestures) during the learning process. The purpose is to engage all students with all learning styles (King, A., n.d.).

How to Encourage Multimodal Learning for Multicultural Literacy with Your Children

1. Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) is a teaching method that helps children develop critical thinking, communication, and visual literacy using images. A picture or artwork is presented, followed by three open-ended questions to guide discussion: 

• What’s happening in this image? 
• What do you see that makes you say that?
• What else can we find?

By discussing the image without a single “right” answer, children learn to observe closely, think deeply, and explain their ideas. VTS is especially helpful for multilingual learners as it reduces reliance on written text and encourages expression through pictures, gestures, and storytelling. Over time, it helps build vocabulary, improve sentence structure, and strengthen storytelling skills, all of which support multilingual literacy (Barton, 2023).

2. Talking Drawings is a literacy strategy that helps children, especially multilingual learners, visually express their understanding of a topic. It involves two main steps: First, students create an initial drawing before learning about a concept, and then they revise and expand it after gaining new knowledge. This process allows students to reflect on their learning and visually represent their understanding in a way that goes beyond just reading and writing. 

This strategy is particularly beneficial for multilingual children, providing a visual and low-pressure way to process and communicate ideas. It supports comprehension across languages, helps them connect their home and school languages, and builds confidence in expressing ideas through multiple modes of communication (Barton, 2023). 

3. Using songs, movement, and games related to a book supports multilingual literacy by making learning more engaging and accessible. These activities enhance comprehension, build vocabulary, and strengthen phonological awareness through repetition and interaction. Acting out stories and singing familiar songs make it easier for children to grasp new concepts. 

• Sing the Song: If the book has an associated song (e.g., Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?), singing it helps reinforce language patterns and rhythm, supporting phonological awareness. 
• Act It Out: Have your child act out parts of the story! Pretending to be the characters and re-enacting scenes helps them understand the story better and remember the order of events. 
• Play a Memory or Matching Game: Using characters or key elements from the book in a matching or memory game helps strengthen recall, vocabulary, and story connections. 

Supporting Multilingual Literacy: Storytelling, Reading, and Writing Across Cultures 

1. Storytelling Styles 

• Different cultures have unique storytelling traditions. Some encourage creativity and imagination, while others focus on facts. In many communities, stories are passed down through spoken word, shared through conversation, songs, or performances instead of books.   
• Try This: Share family stories, traditions, and folktales. Encourage your child to tell stories through drawing, acting, or using digital tools like storytelling apps. 

2. Story Structure 

• Different cultures tell stories in different ways. Some follow a clear order with a beginning, middle, and end, like many storybooks. Others share stories by connecting ideas or experiences without a set order. For example, some cultures use storytelling to teach lessons or share real-life experiences instead of following a strict storyline. 
• Try This: Read books in both languages and discuss how stories are structured. Encourage your child to create their own stories using different styles. 

 3. Reading Direction and Letter Order 

• Languages are read in different directions. English and most European languages go left to right, but Arabic and Hebrew are read right to left. Traditional East Asian books are sometimes written top to bottom.  
• Try This: Read books in different formats with your child. Use your finger to guide them along the words and help them get used to different reading directions. This builds their awareness of different writing systems! 

References 

King, A. (n.d.). What is multimodal literacy? Ellevation Education. Retrieved from https://ellevationeducation.com/blog/what-multimodal-literacy 

Heo, S. (2023). Promoting multimodal literacy pedagogies in elementary immersion classrooms with refugee-background students. University Digital Conservancy. https://hdl.handle.net/11299/258751 

Taylor, S.V., Leung, C.B. Multimodal Literacy and Social Interaction: Young Children’s Literacy Learning. Early Childhood Educ J 48, 1–10 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-019-00974-0 

Barton, R. C. (2023). Beyond the label: Multimodal strategies for working with multilingual learners. The Montana English Journal, 44(2). Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umt.edu/mej/vol44/iss2023/2

Providing AACcess to Literacy: Tips to Support Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) Users During Reading - Noelle Veome

Literacy, or the ability to read and write, is an important skill needed for everyday life. Literacy skills are crucial for academic success, vocational success, connecting with peers, and furthering cognitive skills. For augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) users, providing a literacy-rich environment allows the opportunity to expand communication skills. Below are some key factors to consider when working on reading skills with AAC users.

Targeting Emergent Literacy Skills

This is an area that is often overlooked due to the fact that some emergent literacy skills require verbal output from the student in a typical teaching setting. However, these skills are crucial in laying the foundation for reading. There are multiple ways to target these skills for AAC users: 

Book Handling Skills: Allow the student to familiarize themselves with the physical print structure of books (which way to hold the book, turning the pages, etc.). After they become familiar with this, help them become familiar with the text (identifying that the title is the largest print on the cover, there is text on the pages, etc.). 

--> Example: Instructors can “sabotage” the situation by giving the student the book upside down and backwards to see if they will orient the book correctly. As students advance, instructors could ask students to point to the title, point to the text on a specific page, etc. 

Phonological Awareness: In order to develop strong reading skills, phoneme-grapheme correspondence must be established. AAC users may have a harder time developing this skill set due to the auditory nature of this learning. 

--> Example: Present the student with a few letter cards. Have the student point or look at the letter that corresponds to the sound the instructor auditorily produces. 

Decoding Skills: Once phoneme-grapheme correspondence has been established at the letter level, the next step would be to continue to develop these skills at the word level. 

--> Example: Present the student with a few word cards. Have the student point or look at the word that corresponds to the auditory production of the word that the instructor produces.  

Developing Reading Skills 

Shared reading experiences provide the student with the opportunity to grow their reading skills, as well as their conversational language skills. Historically, reading partners of AAC users tend to monopolize the conversation during the reading experience. Giving the student space to interact and respond to the text is essential to growing reading and conversational skills. Instructors should also make sure that the student’s device is present during the interaction in order to give them the appropriate tools to communicate. 

Choosing a text that is repetitive in nature allows more opportunities for the client to engage, as they can predict the language structure of what is coming. This also provides multiple opportunities for the instructor to model engagement in a repetitive manner. 

--> Examples of books that are repetitive in nature: Brown Bear Brown Bear by Eric Carle, Five Little Monkeys Jumping on the Bed by Eileen Christelow, Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown 

--> Example: In the book Brown Bear, Brown Bear, model the word “see” on the AAC device, every time the word “see” is used in the book. After a few times, the instructor should encourage the student to choose the word “see” on the AAC device every time they hear it in the story. 

Adapting the reading material to fit the reader’s specific needs promotes higher engagement, which in turn fosters an environment for learning. Providing some high-frequency AAC symbols throughout the book alongside the text allows readers to engage with the text even if they do not have the skillset to identify every word on the page. An example of a symbolated book page from There is a Bird on Your Head! by Mo Willems is shown below. Symbols should mainly consist of words that the student is familiar with, and a few new target words to find. The instructor should encourage the student to find these words on their device as they come up in the story. 

This is a symbolated storybook page from There is a Bird on Your Head! By Mo Willems. Only keywords are chosen to be symbols, which reduces visual clutter on the page and emphasizes the main ideas. Encourage the student to find these words on their AAC device during reading.

Some books require extremely specific vocabulary in order to engage with the text. Developing low-tech core boards that are specific to the book would be useful during discussions and related activities with the book. An example of a core board for the book I Really Like Slop! By Mo Willems is shown below. 

This is an example of a low-tech core board for the book I Really Like Slop! By Mo Willems. This board gives the student easy access to main character names (Gerald, Piggie), novel words (slop), and common words that might be used to describe the text (eat, like, don’t like).

Finally, find books that reflect the unique interests of the student. This will increase motivation and enjoyment levels, which in turn will result in greater AAC usage and learning outcomes. Happy reading!

Resources 

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). American Speech-Language Hearing Association. https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Professional-Issues/Augmentative-and-Alternative Communication/#collapse_1

Enhancing AAC interventions with literacy skills: Strategies for SLPS and educators. Able Net, Quick Talker Freestyle. (n.d.). https:// quicktalkerfreestyle.com/blog/enhancing-aac-interventions-with-literacy-skills/ 

Erickson, K. (n.d.). Reading comprehension in AAC. The ASHA Leader. https://leader.pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/leader.FTR1.08122003.6 Lambert, Susan (Host). (2021). 

Science of Reading: The Podcast. https://www.buzzsprout.com/612361/episodes/7707625-s3-03-deconstructing-the-rope-phonological-awareness-with-louisa-moats 

Leroux, E. L., Biggs, E. E., & Shin, D. E. (2024, January 11). Views of Parents on Supporting Language and Literacy for Their Children With Complex Communication Needs. ASHA Wire. https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2023_LSHSS-23-00009?url_ver=Z39.88 2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed Light, 

J., & Kent-Walsh, J. (n.d.). Fostering Emergent Literacy for Children who Require AAC. ASHA Wire. https://leader.pubs.asha.org/ doi/10.1044/leader.FTR1.08102003.4 

Threlkeld, M.S. CCC-SLP, K. (2022, September 13). Literacy intervention strategies for individuals who use AAC. Forbes AAC. https:// www.forbesaac.com/post/literacy-intervention-strategies-for-individuals-who-aac 

Samperi, A. (n.d.). Amanda Samperi: Adapted books -- what are symbolated stories and how do we use them? - AAC in the Cloud 2017 conference. AAC in the Cloud. https://presenters.aacconference.com/videos/UXpZMg== 

Spracher, M. M. (n.d.). Reading and writing (literacy). American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. https://www.asha.org/public/speech/ development/literacy/ 

Zangari, C. (2013, September 20). Literacy lessons for beginning AAC learners. PrAACtical AAC. https://praacticalaac.org/strategy/literacy lessons-for-beginning-aac-learners/  

 

Supporting Phonological Awareness Across Languages - Henry Tomiser

A teacher guides their class in clapping out each syllable of the word “banana.” One child correctly identifies that “hat” rhymes with “bat.” Another splits up the word “tree” into three different sounds. All of these are examples of an important literacy-related skill: phonological awareness.

Phonological awareness refers to an individual’s awareness of the sound patterns of language as well as their ability to manipulate said patterns. It is an umbrella term that includes manipulation and recognition of a variety of language patterns such as rhyming, alliteration (when the same sound occurs at the beginning of each word – for example, “she sells seashells by the seashore”), and segmenting (of sentences into words, words into syllables, and syllables into individual sounds) (Reading Rockets, n.d.). A child with strong phonological awareness skills is adept at recognizing these patterns and “messing with them” at will – for example, they would be able to change the ending sounds of “toy” to make the words “tea” or “too” while recognizing that all three words have the same beginning sound of “t”. 

Phonemic awareness is a more specific subcategory of phonological awareness. It refers to an individual’s ability to recognize and manipulate individual phonemes (Reading Rockets, n.d.). Phonemes are the individual sounds that make up spoken language, and the number of phonemes does not necessarily match up to the number of letters in a word. For example, the letters “kn” in “knock” correspond to one phoneme: the /n/ sound. When we speak, we put phonemes together to create meaning. When phonemes change, the meaning of the word also changes. For example, if we replace the /f/ phoneme in “free” with a /t/ phoneme, we get “tree.” Thus, a child with strong phonemic awareness would be skilled at switching around individual speech sounds, or phonemes, to create different words. 

Phonological awareness skills grow over the course of children’s development. They begin emerging before the age of 4. At age 4, 80-90% of children are imitating rhyme and alliteration; phonological awareness continues to develop at least until the age of 9, when children are now skilled in deleting one consonant from a consonant pair (for example, “tree” becomes “tee”) (see this article from Reading Rockets (Moats, L., & Tolman, n.d.) for a table describing phonological awareness milestones). 

Why is phonological awareness important? In short, phonological awareness is important because it is a predictor (and likely a causal factor) of reading ability. For instance, a study of 570 children found that phonological awareness in kindergarten, above and beyond letter identification abilities, predicted subsequent word reading ability in 2nd grade (Hogan, 2005). In addition to phonological awareness in general, phonemic awareness in particular may play an important role in reading ability. A meta-analytic review found that phonemic awareness uniquely predicted reading ability even when accounting for other skills (i.e., rime awareness and verbal short-term memory), suggesting that phonemic skills in particular are a promising intervention target in early childhood (Melvy-Lervåg et al., 2012). 

How can parents and educators support children’s phonological awareness skills? Reading Rockets recommends targeting phonological awareness skills using fun and engaging activities that are appropriate for a child’s developmental level, suggesting activities such as guiding children in segmenting the sounds in their own names as well as guessing words that have been heavily segmented into their individual phonemes or have had phonemes deleted; skills should be targeted from easiest to most complex, and a tiered system may be necessary for children who need extra support (Chard & Dickson, n.d.). 

Thus far, we have discussed phonological awareness only in monolingual English-speaking children. An important question remains: How is phonological awareness different for bilingual children? Some evidence points to bilingual children having an advantage over their monolingual peers in terms of phonological awareness. In one integrative review of eight papers, five papers found that bilingual children (representing many different language combinations) had a phonological awareness advantage, while two papers found that monolingual children had the advantage (de Medeiros et al., 2020). Another study found that, although the Cantonese and Mandarin-speaking children studied had similar phonological processing in 1st grade, the Cantonese-speaking children in 2nd grade (who were now effectively becoming bilingual, in contrast to their monolingual Mandarin-speaking peers) showed an advantage in some aspects of phonological processing that disappeared by 4th grade; the researchers hypothesized that possible causes of this advantage could be the Cantonese-speaking children’s status as being bilinguals or their unique exposure to the comparatively rich phonological system of Cantonese (Chen et al., 2004). In contrast, Bialystok et al. (2003) found no consistent evidence of a phonological awareness advantage for bilinguals. 

At any rate, phonological awareness in the early years appears to be a resilient skill, regardless of variations in children’s language exposure. Scott et al. (2013) found that when children adopted from China before the age of 24 months completed a phonological awareness assessment, they scored within the average range when compared to the assessment’s normative sample. These children experienced a drastic linguistic change: they went from hearing only their native language to hearing almost only English. Yet, as a whole, their phonological skills were intact. 

How can teachers and parents promote phonological awareness across languages? First, stakeholders must understand the differences between the child’s languages, as different languages emphasize different aspects of phonological awareness. For example, tonal awareness (awareness of how variations in pitch change the meaning of individual words) and syllable awareness are very useful in Cantonese, a tonal language in which meaning maps onto syllables very closely, while phonemic awareness is more useful for English speakers and more difficult for Cantonese speakers (Chen et al., 2004). Stakeholders should also learn about phonological aspects that children’s languages have in common. For example, words in both Spanish and Japanese commonly have the pattern consonant-vowel-consonant-vowel (for example, “luna” in Spanish and 猫 (“neko”) in Japanese). Thus, stakeholders can tailor their activities to target common phonological aspects (getting the biggest “bang for your buck”) as well as unique phonological aspects (to fill in any gaps). 

Which language should you target phonological awareness in? The answer, whenever possible, is all languages! A literature review by Soto et al. (2019) identified two studies that found that when English-Spanish bilinguals received bilingual phonological awareness intervention, they made gains (albeit disparately sized gains) in both languages. The authors also make the following recommendations for phonological awareness intervention for Spanish-English bilinguals, which could reasonably be extended to other bilinguals: 

• Make instruction explicit. 
• Allow children multiple opportunities to respond. 
• Draw attention to the salient aspects of each language. 
• Do not directly translate materials from one language to another. (As discussed above, each language emphasizes unique aspects of phonological awareness!) 

We have seen that phonological awareness is an important skill that is related to later reading ability, and it is a skill that can be targeted across languages. Most importantly, perhaps, working on phonological awareness can be incredibly fun! How will you incorporate phonological awareness into activities with the children in your life?

References 

Bialystok, E., Majumder, S., & Martin, M. M. (2003). Developing phonological awareness: Is there a bilingual advantage? Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(1), 27-44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S014271640300002X 

Chard, D. J., & Dickson, S. V. (n.d.). Phonological awareness: Instructional and assessment guidelines. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/phonological-and-phonemic-awareness/articles/phonological-awareness-instructional-and  

Chen, X., Anderson, R. C., Li, W., Hao, M., Wu, X., & Shu, H. (2004). Phonological awareness of bilingual and monolingual Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 142–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.142  

de Medeiros, A. C. D., dos Santos, M. F. P., da Costa Varela, F. V., de Lima Rocha, T. A., Messias, B. L. C., & Azoni, C. A. S. (2020). Bilingualism in the development of phonological awareness skills: An integrative literature review. Revista CEFAC, 22(4), e0320. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-0216/20202240320  

Hogan, T. P., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. D. (2005). The relationship between phonological awareness and reading: Implications for the assessment of phonological awareness. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 285-293. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2005/029)  

Melvy-Lervåg, M., Halaas Lyster, S. -A., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 322-352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026744  

Moats, L., & Tolman, C. (n.d.). The development of phonological skills. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/developmental-milestones/articles/development-phonological-skills  

Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Phonological and phonemic awareness: introduction. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-101-learning-modules/course-modules/phonological-and-phonemic-awareness  

Scott, K. A., Pollock, K., Roberts, J. A., & Krakow, R. (2013). Phonological processing skills of children adopted internationally. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 22(4), 673–683. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2013/12-0133)  

Soto, X., Olszewski, A., & Goldstein, H. (2019). A systematic review of phonological awareness interventions for Latino children in early and primary grades. Journal of Early Intervention, 41(4), 340-365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815119856067